what lead to modern linguistic relativity
history
Wilhelm von Humbolt
Wilhelm Von Humbolt (22 June 1767 – 8 April 1835) was a German (Prussian) philosopher and founder of the University of Berlin. Humbolt is regarded as the first to postulate a theory connecting linguistics and worldview. Though most of his life was devoted to education, he is best known for his work within linguistics. Over many years, he studied the Basque language as well as the Kawi language of Java, the latter of which is his most notable work which he died while preparing. In this work he discussed how language was essentially the spirit of a nation expressing itself. He quotes,
"... first clearly laid down that the character and structure of a language expresses the inner life and knowledge of its speakers, and that languages must differ from one another in the same way and to the same degree as those who use them. Sounds do not become words until a meaning has been put into them, and this meaning embodies the thought of a community. What Humboldt terms the inner form of a language is just that mode of denoting the relations between the parts of a sentence which reflects the manner in which a particular body of men regards the world about them. It is the task of the morphology of speech to distinguish the various ways in which languages differ from each other as regards their inner form, and to classify and arrange them accordingly." (Mueller-Vollmer, 2007)
Humbolt is often quoted by linguistic expert, Noam Chomsky, for saying that language "makes infinite use of finite means." (Mueller-Vollmer, 2007) Though his theories on language are often criticized, they served as the starting point for which future linguists blossomed from.
"... first clearly laid down that the character and structure of a language expresses the inner life and knowledge of its speakers, and that languages must differ from one another in the same way and to the same degree as those who use them. Sounds do not become words until a meaning has been put into them, and this meaning embodies the thought of a community. What Humboldt terms the inner form of a language is just that mode of denoting the relations between the parts of a sentence which reflects the manner in which a particular body of men regards the world about them. It is the task of the morphology of speech to distinguish the various ways in which languages differ from each other as regards their inner form, and to classify and arrange them accordingly." (Mueller-Vollmer, 2007)
Humbolt is often quoted by linguistic expert, Noam Chomsky, for saying that language "makes infinite use of finite means." (Mueller-Vollmer, 2007) Though his theories on language are often criticized, they served as the starting point for which future linguists blossomed from.
Edward Sapir
Edward Sapir (1884–1939) was an American anthropologist-linguist and widely considered one of the most important influences on modern linguistic theory. Sapir studied at Columbia University under the guidance of Franz Boas, the "father" of modern Western anthropology. Boas was the first linguist to challenge the widespread imperialist ideology surrounding linguistics which justified the eradication of native languages and encouraged learning English to reform to a “civil” way of life. Boas emphasized the equal worth of all cultures and argued that there was no such thing as a primitive language. He viewed language and culture as inseparable and required ethnographers to learn the native language of the peoples they were studying. (Edward Sapir, 2014)
Sapir worked amongst Native American cultures and classified the languages of indigenous American populations. He also solidly developed the modern concept of phonemes, contributing greatly to modern phonology (Biographical Sketch of Edward Sapir, 2009). His work studying Native American languages helped him realize and postulate the relationship between linguistics and anthropology, more specifically how language and culture influence each other. Sapir studied how individual personalities within a society tend to shape cultural patterns of the society, a psychological spin on anthropological fieldwork ((Biographical Sketch of Edward Sapir, 2009). Sapir recognized that the differences in grammatical systems between languages were so stark that no two languages could have a perfect translation. Because each language represents reality in a completely different manner, speakers of different languages would view reality completely differently. Sapir completely rejected the absolutism of linguistic determinism stating that “it would be naïve to imagine that any analysis of experience is dependent on pattern expressed in language.” Sapir argued that the connection between language and culture was not significant as many separate languages share the same culture (ie indigenous tribes of America) (The Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis, n.d.)
Sapir ended his years teaching as a professor at Yale University where he worked with another prominent figure in linguistics. Benjamin Whorf, Sapir's most outstanding student, further developed Sapir's theory, hence the term "Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis."
Sapir worked amongst Native American cultures and classified the languages of indigenous American populations. He also solidly developed the modern concept of phonemes, contributing greatly to modern phonology (Biographical Sketch of Edward Sapir, 2009). His work studying Native American languages helped him realize and postulate the relationship between linguistics and anthropology, more specifically how language and culture influence each other. Sapir studied how individual personalities within a society tend to shape cultural patterns of the society, a psychological spin on anthropological fieldwork ((Biographical Sketch of Edward Sapir, 2009). Sapir recognized that the differences in grammatical systems between languages were so stark that no two languages could have a perfect translation. Because each language represents reality in a completely different manner, speakers of different languages would view reality completely differently. Sapir completely rejected the absolutism of linguistic determinism stating that “it would be naïve to imagine that any analysis of experience is dependent on pattern expressed in language.” Sapir argued that the connection between language and culture was not significant as many separate languages share the same culture (ie indigenous tribes of America) (The Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis, n.d.)
Sapir ended his years teaching as a professor at Yale University where he worked with another prominent figure in linguistics. Benjamin Whorf, Sapir's most outstanding student, further developed Sapir's theory, hence the term "Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis."
Benjamin Lee Whorf
Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897-1941) was an American linguist best known for his ideas regarding linguistic relativity through his work with Edward Sapir. Both Whorf and Sapir drew heavily from Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity whereby a specific language's grammatical and semantic categories proved the frame of reference through which observations can be made; linguistic relativity (Language and Thought, 2012). Whorf was also greatly influenced by gestalt psychology, a theory of mind from the Berlin School. The primary principle of this is that the mind recognizes that the whole is other than the sum of its parts (Gestalt Psychology, n.d.). In 1940, Whorf wrote that:
"We dissect nature along lines laid down by our native languages. The categories and types that we isolate from the world of phenomena we do not find there because they stare every observer in the face; on the contrary, the world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds - and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds. We cut nature up, organize it into concepts, and ascribe significances as we do, largely because we are parties to an agreement to organize it in this way - an agreement that holds throughout our speech community and is codified in the patterns of our language. The agreement is, of course, an implicit and unstated one, but its terms are absolutely obligatory; we cannot talk at all except by subscribing to the organization and classification of data which the agreement decrees." (The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, 1998).
While Edward Sapir held a behaviourist stance that thinking is entirely linguistic, Whorf had a broader understanding and argument. Whorf felt as though meaning does not reside in text but is generated by interpretation. Whorf's statements are commonly interpreted in two ways. The first being that he supported linguistic determinism, the theory that language structures determine human knowledge, thought, memory and perception. The second interpretation following the theories of linguistic relativity. (Theory Reflections, n.d.)
Whorf Worked with indigenous peoples (ie Hopi tribes) and found contrasts between European languages in terms of how each interpreted their realities. Through his studies he discovered that the Hopi have an entirely different concept of time than European languages, and that time is determined by languages. (Benjamin Lee Whorf Biography, n.d.)
More information on linguistic determinism and relativity can be found under the "Linguistic Determinism vs Linguistic Relativity" tab.
"We dissect nature along lines laid down by our native languages. The categories and types that we isolate from the world of phenomena we do not find there because they stare every observer in the face; on the contrary, the world is presented in a kaleidoscopic flux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds - and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds. We cut nature up, organize it into concepts, and ascribe significances as we do, largely because we are parties to an agreement to organize it in this way - an agreement that holds throughout our speech community and is codified in the patterns of our language. The agreement is, of course, an implicit and unstated one, but its terms are absolutely obligatory; we cannot talk at all except by subscribing to the organization and classification of data which the agreement decrees." (The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, 1998).
While Edward Sapir held a behaviourist stance that thinking is entirely linguistic, Whorf had a broader understanding and argument. Whorf felt as though meaning does not reside in text but is generated by interpretation. Whorf's statements are commonly interpreted in two ways. The first being that he supported linguistic determinism, the theory that language structures determine human knowledge, thought, memory and perception. The second interpretation following the theories of linguistic relativity. (Theory Reflections, n.d.)
Whorf Worked with indigenous peoples (ie Hopi tribes) and found contrasts between European languages in terms of how each interpreted their realities. Through his studies he discovered that the Hopi have an entirely different concept of time than European languages, and that time is determined by languages. (Benjamin Lee Whorf Biography, n.d.)
More information on linguistic determinism and relativity can be found under the "Linguistic Determinism vs Linguistic Relativity" tab.